Editor's note: Lynn Greenberg is principal of Lynn Greenberg Associates, a Scarsdale, N.Y., marketing and research consulting company, and immediate past president of the Qualitative Research Consultants Association (QRCA).

Analysis and report writing for qualitative research is more of an art than a science. In contrast to the hard numbers in quantitative research, qualitative research data is subject to the variables of individual interpretation, with no single correct way to present the information.

Two individuals watching the same groups might come away with different interpretations of what respondents said. Interpretations are influenced by other variables such as tone of voice, pauses, inflections of voice, body language, what respondents did not say, preceding discussions during the session and respondent qualifications. Thus, the qualitative report writer is presented with far greater challenges than just interpreting concrete numbers.

A 1997 study1 undertaken by the Qualitative Research Consultant's Association2, revealed that "there are as many different analysis and report writing techniques as there are qualitative consultants." Reports vary in length from eight to 100+ pages, depending upon the objectives of that specific project. Learning garnered, client requirements, writer style and formatting all factor into determining the length of each report.

At the October 1999 QRCA conference3 in Orlando, Fla., 50 qualitative researchers were asked to describe their reporting styles. In discussing their styles, they corroborated the continuing trend to shorter, faster, action-oriented reporting, given client needs for immediate decisions.

Summary reports, also called executive summaries, are most prevalent. They are generally written after listening to tapes or reading transcripts. Some moderators use a note taker or take notes themselves during groups. These reports include limited (if any) verbatims, and vary in length from eight to 30+ pages.

Reports with a lot of verbatims, often referred to as detailed reports, are less common and are lengthier -- 40 or more pages.

Short topline reports, based upon top-of-mind thoughts, are frequently written within a couple of days after the groups. These vary in length from one to seven pages and may serve as the final report if more details are not required by the client.

The type and length of the report is based upon client needs with particular regard as to when the information is needed. The sooner the information is required, the shorter the report will be.

There are two key dimensions to the report writing process: analysis of the data and the actual writing. Analysis is the interpretation of the data collected to provide meaningful insights. Interpretive skills are based upon years of experience. Writing is taking the learning and expressing it in a coherent, logical and succinct way.

The ability to analyze data and write a report do not always go hand in hand. Someone may have wonderful writing skills but not be able to interpret data insightfully. Or, a person may be able to interpret what is said but not be able to write about it clearly and succinctly.

In college, my experimental psychology professor taught me some valuable writing skills by insisting that lab reports be succinct. After a brief training period during which he critiqued the first few papers for verbosity, he only read and graded the first three pages. Students quickly learned how to get to the point, as well as the value of smaller margins! Working at advertising agencies furthered my skills, teaching me how to focus on key issues and present them in a bullet-point format.

Visually appealing formats have become as important as the content, given the very visual world we live in. The report writer must now stay current with technological developments. Presentations given at various QRCA annual conferences by three past QRCA presidents -- Judy Langer, Pat Sabena and myself -- attested to the importance of visual clarity in reports to help readers navigate through the information.

It is laborious to read an uninviting page of text without visual tools to help the eye focus. Tools to use include: bullet points, highlighting with boldfacing, underlining, boxes, italics, capital lettering, different fonts and spacing. During a presentation at the October QRCA conference, independent educational consultant Jack Wolf of Lifelong Learning Partners noted the importance of also incorporating color, icons, borders and framing as well as using graphics software beyond PowerPoint.

Key elements of the summary report
The summary report, the most common report for qualitative research, is comprised of several sections:

  • table of contents;
  • background;
  • conclusions and implications;
  • summary of findings;
  • appendix.

The table of contents helps the reader find what they are most interested in, particularly since projects usually address multiple issues.

The background section provides the framework for the report and is limited to only one or two pages in length. It should include:

- one or two sentences on the reasons behind the research;

- a statement of the objective(s), including the specific issues addressed;

- study dates and locations;

- respondent qualifications;

- a listing of stimuli such as the titles of commercials or product versions exposed during the groups;

- the standard qualitative research limitation statement.

The conclusions and implications section is the most important section. It highlights the key learning and is often the only part of the report read. It can run anywhere from one to six pages. It should:

- answer the objectives of the research;

- succinctly summarize the key learning from the research;

- recommend next steps;

- be formatted somewhat differently than the rest of the report. (It should have a different bullet point format, style font and/or extra spacing; key phrases should be bolded, underlined, boxed, in caps and/or color to focus the eye; and it should be printed on colored paper so it stands out.)

The summary of findings section provides details to support the conclusions and implications and runs five to 25 or more pages on average. Before providing guidelines, it is important to understand how it is and is not used. It is the least-read part of the report and is often just skimmed, with the greatest attention given to the first section of the summary of findings. It is most often used as a reference when more details are required about a specific issue, either as part of the current project or for use on a future one. There are several guiding principles:

  • Organization is key. Have a plan on how to approach writing it. The flow of the discussion guide is helpful for this.
  • View it as a puzzle. Figure out where a piece of information fits and where in the report that topic belongs.
  • Look for themes and patterns.
  • Do not take respondents too literally.
  • Consider the role of different segments such as respondent age, geographic location, frequency of product use, brand usage, etc.
  • Explain contradictions in the learning.
  • Do not leave questions unanswered that can be further addressed by the data.
  • For accuracy, check what consumers say against the stimuli exposed.
  • Avoid numbers and percentages. Use less-quantitative terms instead, such as: many, several, only a few, a couple, almost all, limited and overwhelming.
  • Strive for visual clarity to allow easy skimming and help the reader to find what is important.
  • Make sure you answer the objectives of the research.

The appendix is needed for reference, when reviewing the report, or for future work. It should include:

  • Copies of the stimuli (i.e., concept(s), commercial stats, package designs, benefit statements, etc.) placed in the same sequence as they were discussed in the report.
  • The discussion guide, screener and any other materials (i.e., an in-home diary) to further clarify what was done and to serve as a reference for future projects.

11 tips to meet the challenges of report writing

1. Capture your initial thoughts as soon as possible after the groups. You can use a computer, tape recorder or just jot down notes. When on the road, do this when you get back to your room or on the plane, when everything is still fresh in your mind. Some of the best insights may come at this time.

2. Have a flexible plan. Before starting any report, have an organized and logical plan. However, as you get further into analyzing the data, you will probably find the need to reorder and change your approach to clearly convey the information.

3. Break the task into small pieces and start with the easiest ones. There is nothing more daunting than being faced with a complicated six-group category exploratory and not knowing where to start writing. Look for the easy areas (i.e., reactions to lists of attribute statements, product reactions, alternative product descriptors). Once these basic sections are written, it will be easier to get into some of the more challenging areas (i.e., usage situations and brand imagery).

4. Be succinct. Keep in mind that the reader does not have much time to read the report. He or she should be able to clearly and quickly come away with the two to three key points.

5. Provide overviews to promote understanding of the learning. Create overview sections that focus the reader on key dimensions and eliminate redundancy. For example, a recent packaging graphics study produced similar negative reactions to different designs. Rather than repeating the same information for each design, a summary was provided of the common learning in an overview section. Differences were pointed out when discussing each design separately.

The first statement of a section should be an interpretation of what was learned followed by more details. For example, "This storyboard was not well received. Most could not relate to the woman in labor, which had nothing to do with hair washing and took the focus away from the shampoo."

6. Turn negatives into constructive learning and be clear about their meaning. For example: "Suggestions for improving the product included making it more user-friendly and less child-like." "There appear to be no redeeming features to this product as consumers immediately rejected it for being impractical."

7. Integrate information from other sources where appropriate to provide more relevant learning. This could be from previous related work done by the client, general category information or work from non-competitive categories.

8. Feature action-oriented conclusions and implications that address all of the study's objectives plus any important ancillary issues. Write this after the summary of findings to make it easier to summarize each of the issues covered in the groups. In addition, record the debriefing immediately after the groups to review the important issues discussed. Different interpretations from those watching the groups should be incorporated into your thinking as you write the report.

9. Use a visually appealing format that allows the reader to skim to relevant issues. Use italics, boldfacing, underlining, bullet points and capital lettering wherever possible.

10. Edit, edit and re-edit with independent proofing for clarity, grammar and typos. Have someone not familiar with the project read it to ensure clarity. Make sure everything flows logically.

11. Finally, do it your way. Take ideas from this article and incorporate them into your style and you'll be better able to meet the challenges of report writing.

Notes

1 "Analyzing & Reporting Qualitative Data," conducted by Kathy Provost, manager of new business development, American Management Association, and commissioned by the Qualitative Research Consultant's Association.

2 The Qualitative Research Consultant's Association, also known as QRCA, is a professional organization of independent qualitative research professionals striving to promote excellence in qualitative research. Members share their knowledge and expertise in a cooperative spirit to further their professional as well as individual skills. Founded in 1983 by 26 qualitative research consultants in New York City, QRCA has grown to a worldwide association with more than 700 members in over 20 countries. Membership is limited to principals or employees of independent marketing and social research companies who design, conduct and analyze qualitative research. For more information visit the organization's Web site at www.qrca.org.

3 QRCA holds an annual conference for independent qualitative research consultants.